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HOW TO EVALUATE SCREENERS
Apply rigorous, objective criteria to dyslexia screeners
Criteria for Dyslexia Screeners
Screeners are brief assessments that indicate the estimated risk for dyslexia or reading difficulty. They do not diagnose dyslexia.
There are about a dozen products marketed as dyslexia screeners. Screeners serving grades K-3 are separated from those for K-12 in our comparison.
Some are more costly and less convenient to use because administration is not automated or require teachers trained in their implementation. The screeners assess core areas of literacy as well as others.
Dysolve tests these areas as well, except for reading comprehension and fluency. These areas are already adequately tested annually and regularly by the state and reading assessments used in school.
Dysolve is the only program that meets the most important criteria: its evaluation is individualized to each person’s difficulties, and the results feed into their individualized intervention.
Screeners K-3
Screeners K-12
Dysolve®
Automated administration
No teacher training
Core Areas Tested
Letter-sounds, phonics
Phonological or phonemic awareness
Decoding
Other Areas
Rapid naming
Vocabulary
Spelling
Listening comprehension
Reading comprehension
Reading fluency
Reading accuracy
Integrated with intervention
Individualized
A feature that applies to most screeners in a category is marked with ✓
HOW TO EVALUATE ASSESSMENTS
Apply rigorous, objective criteria to dyslexia evaluations
Criteria for Dyslexia Assessments
Evaluations are typically done by certified specialists. They often take several hours one-on-one and cost between $5,000-10,000 per person. They may cover some of the areas listed for screening above.
The value of an evaluation is determined by what results from it. Getting a dyslexia diagnosis is not enough. The technology is already available to integrate evaluation with intervention so that the former becomes the blueprint for the latter. Only Dysolve does this.
The question to ask your provider is, Can you tell me exactly how the data from your evaluation feed into your intervention?
HOW TO EVALUATE INTERVENTIONS
Apply rigorous, objective criteria to dyslexia interventions
Criteria for Dyslexia Interventions
Ask your provider these questions about the approach, method or program used:
- Was there an experimental study? The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the US Department of Education recommends experimental studies, where a comparison can be made between the group that received treatment v. a control group. The study should be a randomized controlled trial (RCT).
- Who did the study? Was it an independent evaluator? Or the provider themselves?
- What was the measure of success? Did it use independent, objective reading assessments from schools? Or did the provider design their own measures?
- How many participants were in the study? Were they all at-risk readers? What was used to determine their reading level?
- Were they in grade 3 and beyond? Interventions have difficulty showing impact after grade 3.
- Were they from disadvantaged backgrounds?
- Was the intervention implemented in a business-as-usual setting? Or was it given special attention with more resources than usual? That is, Can the program results be replicated?
Dysolve fulfilled additional criteria beyond the ones above.
WHAT IS STRUCTURED LITERACY?
General Definition
Structured Literacy is a systematic approach to teaching reading that is based on the structures of natural language. The scientific study of natural language is Linguistics. In Structural Linguistics, language is comprised of building blocks of increasing size, from sounds (phonemes) to syllables, words, sentences and texts.
Learning to read also entails tying spoken language to written forms, starting with letter-sound relations. Reading is a complex, global activity requiring the efficient coordination of many processes in the brain. These processes involve all these elements above.
Reading instruction should thus be
- systematic
- explicit
- cumulative
In the case of intervention, continuous assessment is also necessary to individualize instruction according to the specific needs of a struggling reader.
Reading for Exceptional Learners
For non-typical readers such as those with dyslexia, a systematic approach to teaching the structures of spoken and written language is not enough. This is why such interventions are considered compensatory, helping at-risk readers cope with the difficulty, not clear it.
Research shows that after 3rd grade; the majority of these learners continue to struggle throughout school. This is why the US Department of Education’s What Works Clearinghouse does not have any intervention that has a positive effect on reading for this population.*
WHAT DOES EVIDENCE-BASED MEAN?
According to the Institute of Education Sciences of the US Department of Education, this term can be used when there is a rationale, based on research findings, that the practice is likely to improve student outcomes, with ongoing efforts to examine such effects. That is, methods and programs called “evidence-based” do not necessarily have evidence of positive effects.
The Department of Education What Works Clearinghouse does not contain any rigorous, replicable study of a reading intervention that has positive effect on broad reading achievement for students with dyslexia who are in grade 3 and up.* Yet the term “evidence-based” is used liberally in special education.
WHAT IS DYSLEXIA, EXACTLY?
Although dyslexia affects 1 in 5 people and the name has been around for a century, it still confuses those with the condition and their families, teachers, providers and even researchers.
Why the Confusion?
Dyslexia’s defining trait is difficulty in learning to read. But its multifaceted aspects mask its true nature:
- Other co-existing symptoms, e.g., difficulty with math
- Contradictory behaviors, e.g., misspelling simple words yet articulate in speech
- Wide individual variation, i.e., different people show different symptoms
- Co-occurring conditions, e.g., ADHD and autism
- Confounding research findings and lack of consensus
State of the Science
Fifty years of research have established that dyslexia is a language-based disorder. It involves language processing in the brain, especially phonological (or speech sound) processing.
But beyond this, research findings tend to be inconclusive and often conflicting. Researchers still cannot agree on an operational definition of dyslexia. A concept needs to be operationalized so that it can be quantified and measured precisely for changes over time. Otherwise, how can we determine whether a person has dyslexia? Or whether they are improving with intervention?
Given this state of the science, two leading researchers from the University of Durham and Yale recommended dispensing with the term “dyslexia” altogether, following their comprehensive review of studies (The Dyslexia Debate, 2014, Cambridge University Press). They suggested “reading disability” instead, tying it to word-reading difficulty.
However, we at Dysolve® believe that a problem as significant and pervasive as dyslexia needs a distinct name. A name carves out the problem, draws public attention and mobilizes action. Moreover, new technology in the past decade has enabled us to overcome this conundrum.
A Logical Approach to Defining Dyslexia
Since dyslexia is a language processing disorder, we at Dysolve define processing difficulties quantitatively as “inefficiencies,” which we can then measure against a target, namely 100% efficiency.
Since the disorder involves the linguistic system in the brain, logically we should find evidence that different parts of this system are affected in different people to different degrees. In Linguistics, the scientific study of natural language, this system is traditionally divided into structural components defined by its basic building blocks. These basic units range from sounds, syllables, words, sentences to meaning concepts. Indeed dyslexia studies show evidence of difficulties with all these linguistic components even though most attention is focused on the smallest unit, the phoneme or sound.
Dysolve AI data reveal that language processing inefficiencies occupy a broad spectrum. At the individual level, different people show inefficiencies in different parts of the linguistic system in the brain. Similarly at the research level, differing definitions of dyslexia occupy different spaces, which is why researchers have not been able to reach consensus.
Breakthrough: Dysolve AI Defines Dyslexia Computationally
Dyslexia is not one unitary thing. People with dyslexia experience varying language processing inefficiencies across a continuum.
Therefore a person’s dyslexia is the bundle of language processing inefficiencies involved. Dysolve AI deals directly with these processing inefficiencies–which can be located, measured and corrected for each person.
By defining dyslexia computationally, Dysolve resolved the problem. We identify the underlying language processing inefficiencies that collectively pose linguistic difficulties for certain individuals, such as in reading.
This computational definition enabled Dysolve AI to advance to correcting the reading difficulty instead of only compensating for it, unlike other approaches.
WHAT THE RESEARCH SAYS
Reading research has yet to offer a clear definition, cause and intervention for dyslexia.
Dyslexia research in the past 5 decades suggests:
↘ Lack of phonological awareness is associated with poor decoding, which in turn affects reading. Phonological awareness is sensitivity to speech sounds and patterns. Decoding is deciphering written words by linking letters to sounds.
↘ Other parts of language may be affected as well.
↘ Underlying auditory and visual processing deficits may be involved in reading disability, but findings are inconclusive.
↘ Attentional factors may be important, but findings are inconclusive.
↘ Reading interventions lose their impact after 3rd grade.*
* Dysolve® is not a reading intervention. It is a language intervention. It clears language difficulties to enable a person to read. Dysolve’s thesis has been proven by its clinical trial results.
WHAT THE RESEARCH DOES NOT SAY
The research to date does NOT say that:
→ The science of reading has the answer for struggling readers.
→ Neuroscience has the solution for dyslexia.
→ Dyslexia is lifelong and cannot be corrected.
→ There is a gold standard in dyslexia instruction that can get students to read on grade level after 3rd grade.*
*Dysolve® is not an instructional program. It improves language processing to enable students to read.
The Science of Reading Mainly Concerns Typical Development
The science of reading is simply the body of work on how to teach reading to typically developing children. It is generally inconclusive on how best to remediate non-typical or exceptional learners such as struggling readers with dyslexia. Reading researchers conclude that the field has no effective instruction for students who are still struggling with reading in middle school.
“The Science of Reading” is not a theory, approach or method. It is not the solution for children at risk for dyslexia or reading failure–because research to date has no satisfactory answer for students who are still struggling with reading beyond 3rd grade.
The question is, Does the method in question have scientific evidence?
For children with dyslexia and other learning disabilities, instructors actually need guidance from “the Science of Non-Typical Reading,” which does not yet exist. Teachers need to know why standard practices do not work with this non-typical or exceptional population. Instructors need to understand how such students process language and read differently. This website is our first step in advancing towards this new science.
“Even high-quality research studies have proven largely incapable of indicating how to help those who have not benefited sufficiently from earlier high-quality interventions”
– Eliott & Grigorenko, 2014, The Dyslexia Debate, Cambridge, p. 141
Neuroscience Can’t Read Individual Brains for Dyslexia
Dyslexia is widely accepted as a neurological condition. The dyslexic brain has difficulty processing language. But neuroscience is still in its infancy.
Neuroscientists state that they cannot identify dyslexia traits in individual brains and may never. They cannot yet read individual brains for dyslexia, let alone correct it.
“To date it is not possible to reliably identify brain alterations characteristic for dyslexia in a single subject and it is unclear whether this will be possible in the near future (or ever)”
Ozernov-Palchik & Gaab, 2016, Perspectives on Language and Literacy v. 42, p. 15
As documented in rigorously designed studies, no established method can get students beyond 3rd grade with a reading disability to read on grade level.* The US Department of Education’s What Works Clearinghouse does not have any intervention showing positive effect on this population.
Reviews of intervention studies often find that they fail to meet the DOE’s Institute of Education Sciences (IES) standards.
Dysolve meets these standards.
Dyslexia is Lifelong and Cannot be Corrected
Let us examine this claim rationally and empirically.
Rational rebuttal. This claim involves 2 parts:
1. Dyslexia is a neurological condition. Brain scans show that dyslexic brains read differently from typical brains.
2. Language is innate, and most people typically pick it up naturally. But if a person cannot do so, then that difficulty must be lifelong because of brain makeup.
Let’s start with the language-is-innate claim. The innateness idea comes from Linguistics. Linguists consider the human ability to produce and parse sentences to be innate. But behind this claim is a complex web of caveats and controversy within Linguistics.
The innateness notion wound its way into dyslexia study. The innateness concept in Linguistics applies to sentence formation (syntax). But the linguistic unit that is strongly linked to dyslexia is sound (phonology), not sentence. Research finds that the strongest predictor of dyslexia is lack of phonological awareness.
Linguists would not claim that the phonological component–the part with the strongest link to dyslexia–is innate. Think about it: a baby develops the sound patterns and structures of their native tongue from their environment after birth, not before.
Empirical rebuttal. The defining characteristic of dyslexia is reading difficulty. We can demonstrate that a person has overcome this difficulty by objective means, with standardized reading assessments pre- and posttest.
Some reading researchers use the 25th-30th percentile in these assessments as the dyslexia threshold. If students who used to score below this threshold, especially for many years, can exceed the 50th percentile posttest after the intervention and keep this gain, then the program can be considered successful in correcting the reading difficulty, or dyslexia.
WHAT ARE LEARNING DISABILITIES?
These are conditions that affect the ability to use language or do math.
The most common learning disabilities are:
→Dyslexia (reading)
→Dysgraphia (writing)
→Dyscalculia (math)
They are classified as “specific learning disabilities” in Special Education. They are more commonly called “learning disorders” in clinical settings. Some prefer the term “learning differences” to emphasize that different learners learn differently, at different rates.
We prefer the term “language processing difficulty.” This term makes clear the root of the problem in language processing.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a reading disability or difficulty. Those affected have problems processing language. It is the most common learning disability affecting 20% of the population.
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a math disability that often co-occurs with dyslexia. Dyslexia results from language processing difficulties. These difficulties can prevent students from acquiring foundational math skills and facts in the primary grades, making math learning harder in later years. Dyscalculia affects about 10% of the population.
Dysgraphia
Dysgraphia is also caused by language processing difficulties, which impede the learning of spelling, written vocabulary and composing skills. By “dysgraphia,” we mean the above, not difficulty with the physical act of handwriting. People who cannot read (dyslexia) often also cannot write (dysgraphia).
WHAT IS LANGUAGE PROCESSING?
To use language, our brains have to receive verbal input, make sense of it and respond appropriately. We do this through several channels: speaking, listening, reading and writing.
To perform these functions, we use various parts of the linguistic system in the brain. The linguistic system may be viewed structurally as being made up of various components that are defined by their basic building blocks: sounds (phonological), words and parts of words (morphological), phrases and sentences (syntax), meaning concepts (semantics), etc.
Take a simple language task, such as hearing someone say “Yes” and responding appropriately. Minimally, this involves processing the sounds in YES and matching the output to the word you know.
To respond, you have to activate the semantic component to create your intention or meaning, the morphological to select your words, the syntactic to combine them into a grammatical sentence and so forth.
In the course of a day, we go through a myriad of language tasks in multiple modalities: read the words on the screen and type an answer, listen to a lecture and take notes, etc. And our brains have to process language super fast because language is only functional this way. Speech sounds come at us so fast that we only notice the words but not each individual sound in them. We spit out words rapidly so that listeners do not forget the beginning of our sentence when we get to the end.
Underlying our daily language use are these processes running in the brain. There are billions of them, all occurring rapidly in many parts of the linguistic system in the brain in parallel.
Occasionally, some of these processes do not run efficiently or at all. Then the system may get glitchy, grind to a halt, or crash. These problems occur in people with language processing disorders. Dyslexia is one of them.
DYSLEXIA MYTHS & FACTS
Based on over 30 years of fieldwork on language-based disorders and a decade of successful interventions with Dysolve, we present the following.
Myth – Dyslexia is lifelong
Dyslexia is due to inefficient language processes in the brain, which can be corrected. Diagnosed by certified psychologists as having dyslexia, children who completed Dysolve were able to pass state/school standardized reading tests, take no more than typical to complete schoolwork and tests, and spell, read and write as well as their typical peers.
Myth – Dyslexia is only a small subset of reading difficulties
Dysolve® AI’s evaluations of struggling readers all show language processing inefficiencies, regardless of whether they had been diagnosed with dyslexia by specialists. Dyslexia affects 20% of students, yet schools do not often provide intervention for 20% of their students.
Myth – The Gold Standard is the best
The science of reading lacks research evidence on the most efficacious treatment for students with dyslexia after 3rd grade. Popular programs, methods and approaches do not often conduct efficacy studies that meet the US Department of Education’s Institute of Education Sciences criteria. They also do not show positive effect on broad reading achievement for this population. The US Department of Education’s What Works Clearinghouse does not have any intervention meeting these criteria. It is hard to find any replicable, rigorous study with positive effect on reading comprehension for this population in meta-analytic reviews.*
Study Criteria
See Elliot & Grigorenko, 2014; Ritchey & Goeke, 2006; Stevens et al., 2021;
Sayeski & Hurford, 2022 in References
Myth – “Evidence-based” means positive evidence
Methods under study are considered “evidence-based” (Institute of Education Sciences). The Department of Education What Works Clearinghouse does not contain any rigorous, replicable study of a reading intervention that has positive effect on broad reading achievement for students with dyslexia who are in grade 3 and up.
Myth – The most expensive interventions are the best
Dyslexia interventions presently require highly trained, certified reading specialists to work with students one-on-one or in small groups. Hence the cost. Yet these interventions only help students cope with their reading difficulty year after year. An AI program can be effective and costs less than 10% of these specialist-led interventions.
Cost of Dysolve v. other methods
Myth – The most expensive evaluations are the best
The best evaluation is one that forms the blueprint for intervention. None of the traditional evaluations, no matter how lengthy, does this. Only Dysolve® AI does.
*Dysolve AI is new. Its 2025 clinical trial showed positive effect for grade 3 and up.
REFERENCES
We have curated these premier peer-reviewed references and primary sources for more comprehensive and in-depth information. If you have any reference to recommend, please contact us.
- Anthony, N., & Bills, K. (2021). Examining college stop out rates for students with disabilities. Journal of Education & Social Policy, 8(3), 13-18. doi:10.30845/jesp.v8n3p2.
- Center for Appropriate Dispute Resolution in Special Education. (2023). IDEA dispute resolution data summary for U.S. and outlying areas: 2011-12 to 2021-22. https://cadreworks.org
- Donegan, R. E., & Wanzek, J. (2021). Effects of reading interventions implemented for upper elementary struggling readers: A look at recent research. Reading and Writing, 34, 1943-1977. doi: 10.1007/s11145-021-10123-y
- Dvorsky, M. R., Shroff, D., Larkin Bonds, W. B., Steinberg, A., Breaux, R., & Becker, S. P. (2023). Impacts of COVID-19 on the school experience of children and adolescents with special educational needs and disabilities. Curr Opin Psychol, 52:101635. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101635. Epub 2023 Jun 17. PMID: 37451025; PMCID: PMC10275652.
- Elliott, J. G., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2014). The dyslexia debate. New York: Cambridge.
- Institute of Education Sciences (IES). What Works Clearinghouse. Search results: Literacy topic. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Search/Products?searchTerm=&Topic=3
- Kraft, M. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241-253. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20912798
- National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP). NAEP Report Card: Reading. https://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/reading/
- National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Students with disabilities. Preprimary, Elementary, and Secondary Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgg/students-with-disabilities
- National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2023). IDEA full funding: Why should Congress invest in special education? Policy & Advocacy. https://ncld.org/news/policy-and-advocacy/idea-full-funding-why-should-congress-invest-in-special-education/
- National Center on Improving Literacy. State of Dyslexia. https://www.stateofdyslexia.org/
- National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
- National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
- Nelson, J. M., & Gregg, N. (2012). Depression and anxiety among transitioning adolescents and college students with ADHD, dyslexia, or comorbid ADHD/dyslexia. Journal of Attention Disorders, 16, 244–254.
- Peyton, D., & Acosta, K. (2022). Understanding special education teacher shortages. State Education Standard, The Journal of the National Association of State Boards of Education, 22(1). https://www.nasbe.org/understanding-special-education-teacher-shortages/
- Ritchey, K.D., & Goeke, J.L. (2006). Orton-Gillingham and Orton-Gillingham-based reading instruction: a review of the literature. The Journal of Special Education, 40(3), 171-183.
- Stevens, E.A., Austin, C., Moore, C., Scammacca, N., Boucher, A.N., & Vaughn, S. (2021). Current state of the evidence: Examining the effects of Orton-Gillingham reading interventions for students with or at risk for word-level reading disabilities. Exceptional Children, 87(4), 397-417.
- Sayeski, K.L., & Hurford, D.P. (2022). A framework for examining reading-related education research and the curious case of Orton-Gillingham. Learning Disabilities, 27(2), 1-11.
- Vacca, J. S. (2008). Crime can be prevented if schools teach juvenile offenders to read. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(9), 1055-1062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.01.013
- VanDerHeyden, A. M., & Burns, M. K. (2017). Four dyslexia screening myths that cause more harm than good in preventing reading failure and what you can do instead. Communique, 45(7), 26-28.
GLOSSARY
We have created a glossary of terms commonly used in literacy and special education and research on neurodevelopmental disorders such as dyslexia. This glossary also defines terms that are used frequently on this site.
SPECIAL EDUCATION GLOSSARY
In Dysolve® Plain Language
Academic Intervention Services (AIS)
Support services given to struggling learners to help them meet reading and math standards
ADHD
A common disorder affecting brain development. It is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Related conditions are ADD and AD/HD. There is currently no test for a definitive diagnosis (which may account for the confusion over labels and classification)
assistive technology
Anything used to improve the ability of people with disabilities to perform a function, e.g. reading text
Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
Difficulty in processing speech sounds. Also called Central Auditory Processing
Disorder (CAPD)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A common disorder affecting brain development. It is characterized by difficulty with communication, social interaction and functions of daily living. Also characterized by limited attention and interests, and repetitive behaviors
anxiety disorder
Anxiety disorder as it relates to academics is persistent and excessive worry over learning and language tasks. It may show physical symptoms
avoidance behavior
Action/inaction to avoid doing a task one finds challenging, e.g., speaking in a second language
behavioral issues
Problems maintaining conduct that is expected in a certain setting. Examples include meltdowns and outbursts
cognition
All mental processes needed for us to function as learners, thinkers and doers. This includes attention, memory, and problem-solving
cognitive impairment
Inability to function in daily life due to problems with the mental processes mentioned above
cognitive overload
Inability to perform a task because current demands on the brain’s working memory exceeds the latter’s capacity. Children may shut down at this point. (See working memory.)
compensatory method
Teaching method used to help struggling learners/readers cope, such as covering the same spelling rule in different ways to make it stick. But the learning difficulty remains chronic. The alternative is corrective method (see below)
contextual cues (reading)
Hints in the passage to help a reader get the answer. Struggling readers may use contextual cues to get the gist of the passage, even when they cannot read fluently
corrective method
Intervention that gets to the source of the reading/learning difficulty to correct it. Dysolve® is a corrective method
decoding
Relating letters to sounds in order to read written words
defeatism
Feeling of hopelessness often seen in students who had been struggling for many years
deprived learning environments
Home/school settings that lack essential resources for learning. This is one of the factors to rule out before attributing reading difficulty to dyslexia
developmental delay
Lag between a child’s abilities and expected abilities for that age. Many factors can cause this delay
developmental milestones
Ages when children are expected to be able to do certain things, such as say first words (1 year)
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5th Ed. (DSM-5)
Reference book for brain-related disorders such as ADHD. Regularly updated by the American Psychiatric Association to reflect changes in knowledge about these disorders
differentiated instruction
Teaching modified to accommodate different types of learners. (See also individualized instruction.)
disability
A physical or mental condition that restricts the ability to carry out the functions of daily living. Sometimes also called “disorder” depending on the type. (See learning disability.)
drug holiday
Taking a break from drugs such as ADHD meds, so as to relieve their side effects
dyscalculia
Math disability/difficulty. A learning difficulty that may be due to language processing. Students who have difficulty processing language may miss math instruction and hence fail to build a foundation in math
dysgraphia
Difficulty with written composition. A learning difficulty due to language processing. Dysgraphia often coexists with dyslexia and problems with spelling. This is different from difficulty with handwriting
dyslexia
Difficulty with learning to read. A learning difficulty due to language processing. Also called developmental dyslexia, which is different from adults who could read but later experienced this difficulty due to brain trauma, etc.
dyslexia screener
A brief online test a student takes or a questionnaire about a student that a teacher fills in. The results may suggest a risk of reading difficulty. Screeners do not diagnose dyslexia
dyslexia specialist
A teacher usually trained (and certified) to use a compensatory method to help
struggling readers cope with their reading difficulty. Also called “reading specialist”
dyslexic advantage
Exceptional abilities in people with dyslexia, as in the way they think. They retain this advantage even after Dysolve® has corrected their dyslexia
dyslexic thinking
Cognitive strengths often found in people with dyslexia, e.g. recognizing patterns and thinking spatially and creatively. These individuals retain these strengths even after Dysolve® has corrected their dyslexia
evidence-based
Institute of Education Sciences (IES) criteria:
- Intervention that shows statistically significant positive effect. The effect may range from “strong” to “promising,” from 1 well-designed experimental study to other kinds of studies
- Or intervention that is likely to have a positive effect, as deduced from the findings of other research, and includes ongoing efforts to examine this effect
Schools are encouraged to use evidence-based programs. But “evidence-based” does not necessarily mean evidence of strong, or any, effect. None of the evidence-based programs listed in the U.S. Dept of Education’s What Works Clearinghouse (Literacy) showed evidence of significant positive impact on reading for students with dyslexia above grade 3. (Dysolve® is a new evidence-based program that will apply for WWC review.)
Some references use “evidence-based” and “research-based” interchangeably; others see the former as more rigorous
executive function
Related to the management of one’s own mental processes so as to fulfill the functions of daily living, e.g., managing time, focusing on task completion, suppressing the impulse to get distracted. People with ADHD and autism have difficulty with executive function
expressive language disorder
Difficulty expressing one’s meaning through speech or writing.
Receptive language disorder is difficulty understanding speech or writing.
Mixed expressive and receptive language disorder shows both types of difficulties
fidelity of implementation
Degree to which an intervention was implemented as intended
free appropriate education (FAPE)
A right for students with disabilities to get a free and appropriate education
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
A non-invasive method to examine brain activity through brain scans. fMRI’s study of language processing is limited because the participant cannot speak and move during the experiment
giftedness
Exceptional strength in a domain. Examples are intellectual, mathematical, linguistic, and visuo-spatial giftedness. Also called “talent.” Some states in the U.S. provide special education for giftedness
grade retention
Repeating a grade for failing to meet benchmarks for that grade
independent reading
Reading on one’s own without assistance. At this stage, the student can generally acquire new words in print independently
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Federal law that ensures rights and protections to children with disabilities. School districts must find and evaluate them at no cost to the family (Child Find). School districts must provide them with free, appropriate education (FAPE). School districts must ensure that parents/guardians have a voice in the process. IDEA covers more than just public schools
individualized instruction
Teaching modified to accommodate different types of learners. In practice, the instruction is usually modified for groups of learners, not individuals, due to classroom logistics. Such programs are also called “personalized” or “adaptive.” For a program to be truly individualized for each specific person, Dysolve’s AI technology is needed
Individualized Education Program/Plan (IEP)
A plan or program developed to ensure that a student with an identified disability receives specialized instruction. Students must have at least 1 of the disabilities listed in IDEA
intellectual disability
Cognitive limitations that restrict the ability to carry out the tasks of daily living, e.g., social interaction and self care
International Dyslexia Association (IDA)
A non-for-profit organization in the US. Formerly the Orton Dyslexia Society, IDA promotes an instructional approach called “Structured Literacy,” which has its roots in the Orton-Gillingham approach. The Orton-Gillingham approach was developed in the 1930s and is still used widely for reading or dyslexia intervention. It is a compensatory method focused on phonics. The IDA publishes its own journals: Annals of Dyslexia, Reading & Writing, Perspectives on Language & Literacy
Internet addiction
Excessive screen time, to the detriment of other daily functions and social relations. Now classified as a disorder. The symptoms used to diagnose it are very apparent in some students who seek help from Dysolve®
intervention
See reading intervention
IQ criterion for dyslexia
Previously, IQ was used in dyslexia diagnosis: based on one’s IQ, if the reading level was considerably lower than expected, the discrepancy was seen as an indicator of dyslexia. Although authorities in dyslexia research have since advised against using IQ, it continues to be used (inappropriately) in practice
language acquisition
Development of the ability to speak and understand a language, through exposure to it in natural settings. Also called “language development.” Language acquisition occurs naturally; language learning occurs through instruction, e.g., grammar rules.
“Reading, writing, and spelling acquisition” are development of reading and writing skills, and spelling rules
language-based disorders
Conditions rooted in language processing difficulties in the brain. These conditions include dyslexia and speech impairment. They fit within a larger category, language-related disorders. Language-related disorders may have other causes but ultimately affect a patient’s language, e.g., dementia
learning disabilities
Conditions that affect the ability to use language or do math. The most common learning disabilities are dyslexia (reading), dysgraphia (writing), and dyscalculia (math). Also called “specific learning disabilities” in Education. More commonly called “learning disorders” in clinical settings. Some prefer the term “learning differences” to emphasize that different learners learn differently, at different rates.
The preferred Dysolve® term is “language processing difficulty” –a difficulty that can be corrected with appropriate intervention
lexile
Scale to measure a student’s reading ability (lexile reader measure) or a text’s difficulty level (lexile text measure). Another commonly used scale is Fountas & Pinnell Reading Levels. To interpret a student’s score, refer to the scale
letter reversals
Mixing up letters, e.g., b and d. This is commonly attributed to people with dyslexia. It does happen within this group. The mixup is due to the similarity of the sounds /b/ and /d/
multisensory instruction
Teaching that engages more than one sense at a time. Although teaching of young children is often multisensory, the term is now used by a certain compensatory method for reading intervention. But reading research finds “no compelling evidence” for the efficacy of multisensory instruction for dyslexia (The Dyslexia Debate, Cambridge, 2014)
National Reading Panel
Committee tasked by Congress to evaluate reading research and find the best ways to teach reading. The Panel’s 2000 report found these important:
- Phonemic awareness (see definition below)
- Phonics (see definition below)
- Reading fluency – ability to recognize words quickly, and read accurately at appropriate speed with expression and understanding
- Guided oral reading – reading out loud while getting feedback
- Word acquisition – building written vocabulary
- Reading comprehension strategies
Nation’s Report Card
Results of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a project mandated by Congress and administered by the U.S. Dept of Education. Historically, the Nation’s Report Card shows that about two-thirds of 4th and 8th graders fail to meet reading standards. Outcomes have worsened post-pandemic
neurodevelopmental disorders
Conditions that affect brain function due to atypical brain development. Examples are learning disabilities, ADHD, autism, and intellectual disability
neuroplasticity
Ability of the brain to change and reorganize
neuropsychological evaluation/testing
Assessment of skills and abilities, e.g., attention and memory, problem solving, language and math, IQ, and social-emotional functioning. These test batteries are sometimes supplemented with interviews and observations of the child to arrive at a diagnosis. Neuropsychological evaluations are sometimes used to get schools to provide special services, but these assessments are not blueprints for intervention
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)
Behavioral condition in which the children affected are uncooperative, defiant, and hostile toward others. ODD sometimes coexists with dyslexia
Orton-Gillingham
A major approach to dyslexia intervention developed in the 1930s and widely promoted in the US. Many commercial programs, dyslexia schools and specialists use this compensatory approach. It is described as a multisensory, structured approach
phonemic awareness
Sensitivity to the sounds (phonemes) of one’s language. People with dyslexia tend to lack phonemic awareness
phonics
Instruction that correlates letters with sounds, to teach children how to read
phonological awareness
Sensitivity to the sound patterns of one’s language. It includes sensitivity to speech sounds (phonemic awareness). People with dyslexia tend to lack phonological awareness
processing speed
The speed at which a person’s brain processes a certain type of input. The processing speed of a person with dyslexia may be too slow for certain types of language input
reading intervention
Curriculum or instruction to help students experiencing reading difficulty/disability. Sometimes used interchangeably with “reading remediation.” Traditionally, reading intervention helps students cope but does not correct the difficulty. But Dysolve® now corrects the underlying processing deficits that make reading difficult
Reading wars
Ongoing debate between 2 ideologies on how to teach children to read. One is focused on phonics. The other asserts that children will learn to read naturally if they are exposed to a lot of books (whole language)
resource room
A designated space where students in special ed are taught or get extra support from the resource room teacher
Response to Intervention (RTI)
A proactive approach that schools use to identify struggling learners early, step in (intervene) before they fall too far behind, and give them the support they need to thrive. RTI is often set up as a 3-tiered support system (multi-tiered system of supports or MTSS). If a student does not progress, the intensity of support increases from tier to tier:
- Tier 1 – Whole class instruction
- Tier 2 – Small group intervention
- Tier 3 – Intensive intervention
Reading research finds that some students do not improve, even with Tier 3 intervention. They are called “nonresponders” or “low responders” to intervention. Students with dyslexia may be in this group
special education
Specially designed instruction to meet the needs of a student with a disability. This is different from general education, which is instruction for all students
twice-exceptional
Having a gift/talent and a disability, e.g. being visually talented and dyslexic. One can mask the presence of the other
typically developing children
Children in the general population who are reaching developmental milestones at expected rates. Those who do not are called “non-typically developing children.” Some people prefer the term “non-neurotypical”
working memory
The small mental “space” for consciously holding and manipulating information, to carry out thinking tasks such as problem-solving and creating new ideas. Because working memory is limited, it cannot process a lot at one time. Thus, language processes usually occur automatically and subconsciously, outside of working memory, e.g., recognizing the sounds in spoken words. But people with dyslexia, who have difficulty processing language, may do so within working memory. This then leaves little room for thinking and learning.
Working memory is different from long-term memory, which holds the vast amount of information saved during a lifetime
504 plan
Plan for how the school will accommodate a student with a disability in general education (regular classroom). The accommodations usually fall short of the special education provided in an IEP (IDEA). Procedures for monitoring progress are usually less defined, but “disability” is more broadly defined (Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act). A student who does not qualify for an IEP may still get a 504 plan
LANGUAGE TECHNOLOGY GLOSSARY
In Dysolve® Plain Language
AI (artificial intelligence)
Simulation of human intelligence, often through task performance. AI can take many forms and use different methods. Machine learning is just one recent example. AI as an academic discipline started in the 1950s
autonomous AI
A computer system that makes all decisions needed to complete assigned tasks independently, without human input or intervention.
Dysolve® is an autonomous AI system that can take a student from signup to program completion without human input or intervention
expert system
A computer system that performs at the level of a human expert or surpasses it.
Dysolve® AI expert system surpasses the ability of human experts in dyslexia intervention
intelligent system
A computer system that acts and responds intelligently, like a human or better than one
language processing
The brain’s operation on language input (reception) and creation of language output (production), i.e., everything done by a person in using language. An example of a basic language process is detecting the sound /b/ in the word “big.” Dysolve® operates on these language processes to identify and correct dyslexia.
Language processing is different from “Natural Language Processing,” which is a subfield in computer science involved in using AI to simulate humans’ verbal ability
language processing difficulties/deficits
Inefficiencies in certain language processes of a specific brain. Inefficiencies may be measured by accuracy and speed. The inefficiencies may hamper speaking, listening comprehension, reading, and writing. This is why people with dyslexia have language processing difficulties
Linguistics
The scientific study of natural language. Theoretical Linguistics views language as a massive complex of interlocking systems made up of hard-to-decipher codes.
Clinical Linguistics applies this knowledge to the study of language disorders
natural language
Language developed and acquired by humans in natural settings. This is different from artificial language used in computing
TRIAL RESULTS SUMMARY
POLICY IMPLICATIONS OF THE DYSOLVE® RANDOMIZED FIELD TRIAL
Dysolve’s efficacy was evaluated independently in a randomized controlled trial (RCT). Such RCT studies are relatively rare and are widely recognized by experts as the “gold standard” for rigorous evaluation of program impacts.
"With this RCT, Dysolve joins an exclusive group of education interventions that have been subjected to the most rigorous test of their impact on student learning...too many interventions are adopted in schools and classrooms despite having zero rigorous evidence of impact."
KEY FINDINGS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Without any service interruption, Dysolve AI generated individualized game activities in realtime to evaluate and correct processing difficulties quickly.
RCT: Dysolve AI identified the type and severity of deficits for each person within 2 hours on average. Nearly half the schools had at least one Dysolve user attain reading proficiency within 3 months.
Some Dysolve users made huge reading gains.
RCT: The biggest gains were seen by Dysolve users in nearly 90% of schools. Some students advanced from <10th percentile to the 50th within 2.5 months (e.g., from 1st -> 76th, 4th -> 91st).
Dysolve worked for diverse, lowest-performing readers.
RCT: Positive effect even though 70% of schools started with 1 or more pupils at the 1st percentile. Nearly half the schools had 90- 100% of pupils at/below 10th percentile or 2 grades below pre-Dysolve.
Dysolve is an economical solution.
RCT: Dysolve did not require teacher instruction. This plug-and-play program was supervised by school staff who did not require expertise or orientation training.
Dysolve AI is more effective than any other dyslexia screener, evaluation and intervention.
RCT: For 100% of students who completed Dysolve’s evaluation, deficit areas were identified. Dysolve AI only needed this evaluation data to develop interventions that surpassed controls’ outcomes overall.
ADVANCING AI IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
UNDERSTANDING EXCEPTIONAL LEARNERS
ASK THE EXPERT ANYTHING
Have a question? Our team of experts in various specialties are here to help. Clinical Linguistics, Education Science, Special Education, Dyslexia Research, Reading, Writing, Math Instruction, Giftedness, Twice-Exceptionality Studies, AI in Education.